Analysis Of Lord Of The Flies And Hunger Games By...

The concept of civil culture is one often glorified within society, yet its power depends wholly on the ethical nature of those who uphold it. The novels, Lord of The Flies by William Golding and The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins, demonstrate this prospect as through the narrative techniques of characterisation, plot, setting and style, they exemplify the moral decline of man under pressure to survive, ultimately resulting in savagery. Characterisation plays a major role in both texts as each character serves as a representation humanity and the faults within it. Throughout Lord of the Flies there is a developing inequality among the characters as social order is established based on the strength and ability of each. Consequently the weakest of those characters are placed at the mercy of the strongest, in essence giving them the power that motivates their transformation from well-mannered British boys to unrestrained savages. Likewise inequality is demonstrated to the same extent within the Hunger Games as the weaker, less experienced tributes are hunted by the Careers , a pack of brutal children who become natural and effective killers. Throughout both novels, the characters place great significance on appearance, as how they are perceived by others factors into their survival. In The Hunger Games a certain appearance wins the support of sponsors, who may well mean the difference between life and death, If you appeal to the crowd,Show MoreRelatedUtopia:The Flawed Pursuit for Perfection1000 Words   |  4 Pagesbecome prominent in modern works and form the basis for this analysis in William Golding’s The Lord of the Flies and Suzanne Collins’s The Hunger Games. Through their most recognised pieces, Golding and Collins demonstrate that free will and control cannot be moderated effectively to sustain a utopian society. Demonstrating that human greed and corruption dismantle these ideals, effectively creating a dystopia. Through The Lord of the Flies, Golding demonstrates the degradation of a potentially utopicRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesKelly Warsak Senior Operations Supervisor: Arnold Vila Operations Specialist: Ilene Kahn Senior Art Director: Janet Slowik Interior Design: Suzanne Duda and Michael Fruhbeis Permissions Project Manager: Shannon Barbe Manager, Cover Visual Research Permissions: Karen Sanatar Manager Central Design: Jayne Conte Cover Art: Getty Images, Inc. Cover Design: Suzanne Duda Lead Media Project Manager: Denise Vaughn Full-Service Project Management: Sharon Anderson/BookMasters, Inc. Composition: Integra SoftwareRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesCity University Carol Carnevale, SUNY Empire State College Donald W. Caudill, Bluefield College Suzanne Chan, Tulane University Anthony Chelte, Midwestern State University Bongsoon Cho, State University of New York—Buffalo Savannah Clay, Central Piedmont Community College David Connelly, Western Illinois State University Jeffrey Conte, San Diego State University Jane Crabtree, Benedictine University Suzanne Crampton, Grand Valley State University Douglas Crawford, Wilson College Michael Cruz, San Jose

The Impossibility Of Moral Responsibility - 2006 Words

Moral responsibility is a concept that has, in some way, existed in every culture and civilization that recorded history can tell us about. From the Law of Hammurabi to beliefs in judgmental gods mankind has always assumed some form of moral responsibility—whether metaphysical or within a society. While pragmatic considerations of moral responsibility seem to be necessary for living within a society, the philosophic concept of moral responsibility beckons many inherent problems that must be resolved. Galen Strawson in â€Å"The Impossibility of Moral Responsibility† presents a strong argument as to why moral responsibility is impossible, while Susan Wolf responds to the problems presented, and argues that moral responsibility does exist in some†¦show more content†¦He shows the argument in the way it exists in a person’s life, which allows for more coherent discussion, and as he later states, â€Å"new forms of objection† (314). One important note to make on Strawson’s argument is his hard determinist stance. He believes that every decision and action of a person is predetermined by their heredity and early experience. For him, no form of free will exists. While he does believe that a person is able to examine their behaviors and tendencies, their ability to self-revise is predetermined by heredity and early experience. His determinist stance allows his argument to be sound and extremely difficult to refute. Another important thing to draw from the Strawson argument is what is meant by moral responsibility. For Strawson, true moral responsibility means that one is responsible to the degree that it is sensible to either punish one with eternal torment in hell, or reward one with enteral bliss in heaven (314). His definition of moral responsibility is not confined to religious faith in heaven or hell, but rather is used to convey an absolute nature of accountability. This concept of moral responsibility as Strawson pres ents is pivotal in understanding his objection of moral responsibility. Strawson’s argument is not against a legislative or judicial sense of responsibility, and does not take the form of responsibility that aShow MoreRelatedThe Neural Basis Of Free Will : Criterial Causation Essay1523 Words   |  7 Pagessimply take in sensual inputs, and make a decision off of these inputs. This argument is acknowledged through the impossibility of self-causation argument which Peter Ulric defines through his book, â€Å"The Neural Basis of Free Will: Criterial Causation†, where he explains the impossibility of self-causation argument down to a neurological level. He says that the definition of impossibility of self-causation comes down to mental events and neurological causal chains occurring in the mind, and the inabilityRead MoreEssay on What Are A Fathers Rights Concerning an Abortion1069 Words   |  5 Pageshe is willing to take on the responsibilities of having a child so h e should have a say if his fetus should be terminated or not. The Becoming A Father/Refusing Fatherhood article states, â€Å"To be a father-as-progenitor a man simply has to provide the sperm that leads to conception, whereas to be a father-as-carer a man has to take on a variety of social roles. The roles associated with the father-as-carer included disciplinarian, breadwinner/provider, guardian, moral compass, sex role model, guideRead MoreEvil And Suffering By John Hick1606 Words   |  7 Pagessimilar terms. Dating back to the creation of the universe, evil and suffering have influenced our existence as human being. Many factors are responsible for how humans cope with, experience, and perceive evil and suffering. Evil can be defined as a moral or natural suffering that affects human beings (Reuter, 29 August 2016). Furthermore suffering can be defined as a response to threat to integrity of self (McFarland, 12 September 2016). One of the greatest challenges with evil and su fferings isRead MoreA Engineer s Responsibility Is Still Vague Of The Top Demand Professions Of All Time1699 Words   |  7 PagesTime to wake up Engineering has been one of the top demand professions of all time. Nevertheless, the awareness of an engineer’s responsibility is still vague in the society. In this concurrent era of technological revolutions, it has become highly relevant to give a definition to this. The question, ‘whether engineer should remain within the limitations/ guidelines of the organizations they work for or not’ finds high relevancy and importance. There are ongoing strong debates on this matter, withRead MoreDiscussion on the Determination of Self Essay777 Words   |  4 Pagespower is magnified at the cost of man’s freedom. It seems to me that by accepting this theory of determinism, one must reject the idea of moral responsibility. We must choose whether we believe that at the point of decision making a person can distinguish and thus choose between what is right and what is wrong, according to their moral self. If we take this point as valid, we must all together reject determinism and take the view of libertarianism. However the libertarianRead More Sinner is the Saint in The Heart of the Matter by Graham Greene1085 Words   |  5 Pagessurrounding moral responsibility are outlined in Graham Greenes 1948 novel, The Heart of the Matter. The story outlines the plight of a man of principle who is unable to fulfill his responsibilities to himself, his wife, and God. Scobie, an upright assistant commissioner for the police, has little promise of improvement facing life with a small income, few friends, and a malcontent wife. As he becomes further trapped in his situation, he must choose between upholding religious and moral valuesRead MoreA Modest Proposal By Jonathan Swift Essay836 Words   |  4 Pagesnot at this day think it a great happiness to have been sold for food at a year old, in the manner I prescribe, and thereby have avoided such a perpetual scene of misfortunes, as they have since gone through, by the oppression of landlords, the impossibility of paying rent without money or trade, the want of common sustenance, with neither house nor clothes to cover them from the inclemencies of the weather, and the most inevitable prospect of entailing the like, or greater miseries, upon their breedRead More determinism Essay1550 Words   |  7 Pagesstrongest argument against determinism is the inherent moral dilemma. If every action was already predetermined and there was no way of going around it, than how can we hold people responsible for committing crimes, or give praise for noble deeds, if the person had no choice but to do as they did, how coul d they be held morally responsible for their actions, it would be like punishing your dog for eating. Could you imagine a world with no moral responsibility, albeit the world would be a much more acceptingRead MoreAdolf Eichmann: The Existential Failure1596 Words   |  7 Pagesinability to accept responsibility, and hence his freedom, he fails to think for himself and assert himself as an individual, and thus fails to define his own essence, and finally, he adopts a grossly perverted ethics that twists his actions from being immoral to moral. Sartre claims that the first duty of existentialism is to instill in all people knowledge of the heavy responsibility that accompanies existence. (16) Being human entails the capacity to act, with which comes responsibility to others, forRead MoreTruth Telling in Todays Society Essay588 Words   |  3 Pagesother hand, lying can be used as a tool of deception and manipulation. When used in this manner lying becomes detrimental to an individual and to a society. â€Å"We need to sort out what is and what is not morally justifiable, just as we must sort out moral from immoral behavior in politics, science, and religion (qtd. in hooke, 210)† The witness’ protection program is relied upon by many individuals across the nation to protect their lives against dangerous criminals. In order for this to be successful

Cosmetology and College Search Free Essays

When wanting to be a good Cosmetologist that person has to have good work ethics as in being self-motivated with their work. Cosmetology careers are jobs that help someone’s appearance look better over time as the hair is done by a licensed worker (An Introduction to Cosmetology). For someone to be a good cosmetologist he or she has to have a creative mind and has to be a friendly person (An Introduction to Cosmetology). We will write a custom essay sample on Cosmetology and College Search or any similar topic only for you Order Now When that worker is working with someone’s hair, the main thing to remember is to ask the customer how the hair is going to be cut and the instructions of that person always needs to be followed in order to keep the customer. Cosmetology workers can earn lots of money if taken the right path to succeed their possibilities in the future. The general tasks a hairdresser may do daily and many more could include keeping work stations kept clean at all times and cleaning hair accessories after each use, being sure to ask the customer what hair style they would like and follow their instructions on how they want it, â€Å"look at the hair and give the customer a couple of ideas on how the hair style could look†, picking up the phone and taking customers calls and scheduling appointments, â€Å"going through all files and making sure they are updated with all the customers correct information†, being on cash register duty to take the customers money from them, selling hair care products is a major component of this career and cosmetologists like to show customers before they leave the salon and demonstrate the items that would work best with their hair for them to sell. (College Search and Planning Guide). A cosmetologist can â€Å"make an average of $11. 21 an hour and make an average of $43,250 a year† (College Search and Planning Guide). In order for a worker to make this much they usually have 40 hour workweeks. â€Å"In the United States, there are about 349,210 hairdresser/cosmetology jobs offered to people in interest of being a cosmetologist†(College Search and Planning Guide). The work environment for hairdressers is 99% always clean to satisfy a customer in their own personal salon or someone else that owns that salon (College Search and Planning Guide). How to cite Cosmetology and College Search, Papers

Euthanasia Informative Essay free essay sample

The Controversy of Euthanasia One of the biggest and most controversial topics throughout society today is the act of euthanasia in humans. In the medical field, euthanasia is commonly known as assisted suicide that is essentially for terminally ill patients only. When thinking about euthanasia, Americans tend to relate it towards the rights for animals, but in this specific example I will focus on the controversial topic of legalization on behalf of people who are professionally diagnosed with a life-threatening diseases. This will not include minorities under the age of eighteen or the elderly over the age of sixty. Thus when looking at the data in today’s society, euthanasia is clearly defined as taking action of ending a person’s life to relieve persistent and relentless pain. As of today, the majority of our nations population believes that euthanasia is immoral. Although euthanasia is illegal in the United States currently, some citizens argue in defense of dying peaceful with dignity rather then suffer in a hospital bed for months on end. After several decades of consideration, euthanasia is extremely difficult task to break down due to both disagreements within the choice for and against this practice. For instance, the term ‘euthanasia’ comes from the Greek words eu meaning god, and thanatos meaning death (Manning 2). Euthanasia can also be referred to as ‘mercy killing’ or the practice of assisting someone the aid of death whether it may be legal or illegal, depending on a countrys jurisdiction. In other countries it is legal, like Belgium, Norway, Sweden, and Albania. Most of the United Kingdom, since 2009, declared legalization in all hospitals for medical euthanasia under the condition that a patient is suffering from chronic pain along with an incurable disease (Mattlin). The specific classification of euthanasia within legal jurisdiction becomes more complex when looking at what is considered fair and what is unjust. During the 1300s suicide or helping an individual commit suicide was considered as a criminal act. The idea of ‘mercy killing’ was not supported by the superiority of rising Christianity. In the United States of America, the first law against assisted killing, known as ‘anti-euthanasia’ was passed in 1828, New York. Euthanasia, like induced abortion, had been a major subject for deliberation since then. Within several decades euthanasia as divided into two main subgenres known as active-voluntary and passive-voluntary euthanasia (Manning 3). Voluntary is a medical classification of dying with consent from a patient within a reasonable amount of time before the termination process. Involuntary euthanasia is rarely seen today and is very uncommon due to new technologic advances in security and medical forensic sci ences. In voluntary euthanasia, can although be simply defined as dying without consent (Nitschke). Under the English influence during the 15th century, active and passive euthanasia was categorized underneath voluntary medical practices. This is demonstrated in the process of the patient’s death. For example, active euthanasia is to end a persons life by use of drugs, whether by oneself or with the aid of a physician, when passive euthanasia is taking a persons life by not taking helping the patient survive during a ‘DNR’ circumstance, medically known as ‘do not resuscitate’ when need. Also passive termination can include withdrawing water, food, drugs, medical or surgical procedures needed in order to maintain life while sick (Manning 3). Voluntary euthanasia is so controversial when it comes to the active practices because in the United States, residents have a legal right to freedom of speech and self-opinion. When opinions collide, we cannot simply justify both parties on equal terms under the federal laws of the U. S Constitution. In Washington, Montana and Oregon, it is legal for active euthanasia to occur if a medical practice agrees with their sick client. Since legalizations in 2009, statistics display that Oregon’s medical practices have little to no evidence on patients who had documented uncontrollable pain. All of the patients who requested assisted suicide cited psychological and social concerns as their primary reasons. According to the Health Division, this clearly does not give the United States court system any proof of dramatic circumstances in the use of active euthanasia. Ben Mattlin, who is a known to be a famous author in the medical and legal standpoints of society, wrote â€Å"Suicide by? Not So Fast,† in November 1, 2010. Mattlin expresses, â€Å"My job as a physician is to ensure that people can see their inherent dignity reflected in they way they are cared for† (Mattlin). He debates the issues on how ‘active euthanization’ it is not ratified enough to become nationally acceptable due to the evidence of no complications found within the state of Oregon. Mattlin powerfully expresses that actively having the option to end ones life is unjust and should not be made legal. Given the concluding data made in the state of Oregon, He believes that a person should not be able to make a decision for them or for another on the act of terminating a life. Therefore, he persuasively projects the reasoning of why a human life, disabled or frail, should not have to choose death to become dignified. Voluntary euthanasia may be looked down upon within active medical practices, although in some cases, the view of passive euthanasia is morally acceptable. For instance, within common life-threating illnesses, a patient will take extreme measures into there own hands. When given a negative diagnosis, a sick patient pleads to end their life, in order to not go through more pain and suffering. In most states, with the exception of Washington, Montana and Oregon, a certified doctor must refuse to let the individual die and save their life no matter what. Despite the emotional or physical pain a person endures, a doctor must remain positive and push treatment on their sick patient. A man named Derek Humphrey reasonably argues that, â€Å"In this century, medicine has made tremendous strides towards keeping us healthy and living longer, for which we are all grateful. But modern medicine has not entirely solved the problem of terminal pain, and it certainly never will be able to answer the very personal question of an individual persons quality of life† (Humphrey 34). He claims his pro-euthanasia thoughts through his groundbreaking novel about assisted suicide, called The Final Exit. Humphrey declares it is not right to say active euthanasia is ‘wrong’ in the sense of how passive euthanasia is morally adequate. He pushes his thoughts further by explaining that passive euthanasia is used in day-to-day cases and there is not anything we as individual citizens can do about it. This is because a doctor cannot force a terminally patient treatment if they aren’t willing to stay positive nor corporate. On a legal standpoint, Humphrey argues and debates the reasons of why active euthanasia is wrong due to the fact that many individuals refuse burdensome medical treatment in order as a legal and safe option of dying anyways. In addition, Derek Humphrey states that actively killing oneself is just the same as asking for physical medical assistance in order to take the life of someone with a fatally ill disease (Humphrey 16). Both active and passive voluntary euthanasia is so debatable due to medical realities shown in historical studies. For example, a man, commonly known as Dr. Death, or Jack Kevorkian, was an American pathologist, and euthanasia activist who is best known for publicly championing the aid of life-threatening patients, on rights to die through physician-assisted suicide. On March 26, 1999, Dr. Kevorkian was charged with second-degree murder due to the clear statements and legal documentation of ending at least 130 of his patients to death in order to prove a point in his battling court case. After his conviction, Jack Kevorkian declares, on live television, dying is not a crime† (Robinson). Soon following the dramatic loss in court, Kevorkian is constrained by reporters who publicly announce the federal reasons as to why he was sentenced to prison with second-degree murder by the court. Citizens of the U. S soon discover that sixty percent of the patients who committed suicide, with Dr. Jack Kevorkians, help were not terminally ill, and thirteen had not complained of uncontrollable pain. The reports further emphasized that Kevorkians counseling was too brief when deciding to euthanize a life. The public became officially aware of the horrid behind ‘Dr. Death’. The nineteen patients died within less than twenty-four hours after first meeting Kevorkian and evidence was found that he did not, in fact, preform a psychiatric exam in the nineteen cases he chose (Robinson). On behalf of Kevorkian’s terminated patients, five of individuals had severe histories of depression and Kevorkian was properly aware. Despite knowing the history of Kevorkians five individuals who were hopeless for reasons their medical condition, he still decided to illegall take their life. Due to his dramatic example, legalizing active euthanasia is legally unjustified. Having verification of accurate physiological testing by a set of different medical doctors and multiple agreement forms from the severely ill person who is mentally capable of making decisions. Ben Mattlin, a graduated from Harvard University and born with spinal muscular atrophy, believes it is impossible to keep track and verify euthanasia (Mattlin). Thus concluding, not all of Dr. Kevorkian’s patients were eligible for the active treatment of euthanasia. Criticism still arises within the U. S on the unanswered questions of what the real difference is between citizens who are terminally ill physically or who are extremely ill mentally (Mattlin). All people should have equal rights and opportunities to live, or to choose not to go on living. Euthanasia activist clearly state in medical defense, according to Michael Manning’s historical timeline on euthanasia, that it is possible for someone who has just has become disabled, from a life-threating illness, may in fact feel depressed and will ask for death as an ulterior motive (Manning 1). Which is why, if legalized, standardization must be proposed towards the system of euthanasia that includes psychological support and assessment before the patients wish is granted. Technological advances are progressing each and every day and the arguments of past history are unfair to completely rule out legalization of active euthanasia. For instances, Jack Kevorkian argues with the press during the 1990’s, The time has come to take a historic step at least in the controlled circumstances I laid out. Theres no danger; its minimal. Its a little experiment. You have absolute control. Try it. If it doesnt work, we quit. Wheres the damage (Humphrey 43). Many relaxing care experts argue that there is no need for euthanasia, as with modern day medications and care, most terminal patients can be made comfortable until they die naturally, though that is not always the case (Nordqvist). Thus, Humphrey describes the importance of respecting the choice of others with disabling and painful illness. He states that the only way the patient can be helped with further treatment is by ‘clouding’ their intelligence to the point that they are no longer themselves. Many people find this more acceptable than the alternative of voluntary euthanasia, but half of our nation believes it’s not right and unfair, just like Derek Humphrey. Although euthanasia is illegal in the United States currently, some citizens argue in defense of dying peaceful with dignity rather then suffer in a hospital bed for months on end. The act of voluntary euthanasia has been debated for several decades and is an extremely difficult task to break down due to both disagreeing sides. Assisted voluntary euthanasia, or active euthanasia, is when a patient intentionally brings about his or her own death with the help of a physician. Active euthanasia is very complex to many people against the legalization because of their religious, cultural or ethical beliefs. Although several individuals argue in favor of active voluntary euthanasia because of their beliefs that everyone should have the right to choose when to die peacefully and painlessly within medical circumstance.

The European Union and Mercosur

Regional integration phenomenon Regional integration is a common trend in today’s world as countries, regions and businesses are on a drive to become a part of the globalization process. Within the previous decade, the ongoing processes that have taken place in organizations such as the European Union (EU) and the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) generated researchers’ interest in the phenomenon of regionalism and gave rise to debates concerning the main preconditions and effects of the proliferation of the regional arrangements.Advertising We will write a custom thesis sample on The European Union and Mercosur specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the integration processes and institutional organization of the EU and Mercosur and to analyze their current bilateral relationships. The most influential approaches to explain the phenomenon of regionalism are neo-functiona lism and liberal intergovernmentalism. The exponents of neo-functionalism posit that the primary motivation of the member states for organizing the international institutions is satisfying their functional needs by standardizing the procedures of economical exchange (Mansfield 1997, 15). The exponents of the liberal intergovernmentalism theories put emphasis on pressures of the internal interests of the member states and their impact on the processes in the international unity, considering the member states as the main actors in the international system (Mansfield 1997, 15). On the economic side, there are also three significant approaches that categorize unions; namely, the custom union theory, the optimal currency theory and the fiscal federalism theory. The first is the customs union theory. This theory presumes that trade within regional blocs boost cooperation and the economic welfare of countries. This is due to healthy competition and trade tariffs implemented. Skeptics claim that this type of cooperation results in some countries being disadvantaged due to their inability to fairly compete with products from member countries (Morgante 2003, 58). It will be seen in the case study in this paper that Mercosur is currently a customs’ union and therefore, smaller member states like Paraguay and Uruguay suffer the consequence of having open markets but not having a significant diversity of products; however, this tendency is changing as these two states are rapidly advancing. The Optimal Currency Area theory is based on the geographical positioning of various states and the suitability of having a similar currency for the region. Sharing a single currency maximizes economic efficiency and results in the growth of a region based on the singular currency (Roett 1999, 99).Advertising Looking for thesis on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Finally, the fiscal federalism theory proposes that for any organization it is important to understand the kind of functions that need to be centralized and those that need to be decentralized. This theory is applied to economic integration in the sense that aspects that need to be decentralized by individual states could be done in a regional scale; such as the formation of a common currency and fiscal policy for a region (Piattoni 2003, 48). Thesis Statement This study will provide an explanation of the similarities and differences between the European Union (EU) and the South American Common Market (Mercosur). The strategies used by both blocs in their international arrangements and integration processes are rooted in the historical background of the regions, peculiarities of their economical development and primary motivation of the states for creating a union. Mercosur is currently utilizing particular achievements of the EU as a model for its own integration process, as it is adapting them to the realities and pe culiar needs of the bloc. Integration in Europe Lessons Learned from the Wars and the Need for a Common Market Though the creation of the European Union is dated to 1992 when the Treaty of Maastricht was signed, the idea of uniting the efforts of European states for reaching common goals is much older. The two world wars forced nations to re-evaluate the concepts of territorial sovereignty and economic independence. The war crisis brought a need for improved cooperation and coexistence between nations (Lorenzo and Aboal 2006, 157). The European Coal and Steel Community can be regarded as the first attempt of European integration. It was established by the 1951 Treaty of Paris which was signed by France, West Germany, Belgium, Luxemburg, and the Netherlands. In 1957 the integration process continued with the introduction of the European Economic Community (EEC) which became part of the future EU. Thus, European integration has a rich historical background which influenced the organiz ation and the level of institutionalization of the union. As mentioned by Kelstrup (1992) â€Å"the mid-1980s move towards a single market was facilitated by the European fear of loss of competitiveness compared with the USA and Japan† (Archer 2008, 26). Approaches Taken In order to explain the phenomenon of European integration on the government and community levels, researchers theorized the intergovernmentalist and neofunctionalist approaches. The debates concerning the role of the governments of individual European states and the Community institutions in the process of integration have been led for a long time.Advertising We will write a custom thesis sample on The European Union and Mercosur specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The choice of appropriate patterns of cooperation and the institutional structure of the union are important for considering the interests of every member and creating the conditions for mutually beneficial long-term relationships. All the member states of the EU are developed countries, and the confederation model was chosen as the best option for this international arrangement. The equal opportunities and the proportionate distribution of the profits is significant for ensuring the confidence of the states that their interests are not violated and that membership is advantageous for them. At present, the European Union has 27 member states. The signature of the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992 indicated the beginning of a new period of integration in Europe. The EU has managed to promote free trade and movement of people within the territory of the member states through the abolition of national borders and the implementation of common policies on various issues among member states. The EU has also fostered regional and global cooperation by becoming a legal entity and thus allowing it to sign treaties and agreements on behalf of its member states. It has also undertaken a sin gle currency and promoted common legislature on issues pertaining to justice among member states and the introduction of common currency/fiscal policies. Institutional Structure The EU has several institutions which help to maintain and strengthen the integration process. Among the main ones are the European Parliament, the Council of Europe, the European Council, the European Commission, the European Court of Justice, the European Central Bank, and the Court of Auditors. However, the two institutions which are the most relevant for the development of the union are the Council of Ministers and the European Court of Justice (ECJ). The Council of Ministers is an intergovernmental body; it is composed of the representatives of member states and its president is rotated every six months. There are two approaches to voting in the Council of Ministers, they are by unanimity for taxation, cultural and social spheres or by qualified majority for the environment, transport or internal market . Therefore, â€Å"It is possible for EU legislation to become Community law against the wishes of a member state† (McDonald 2005, 16).Advertising Looking for thesis on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The European Court of Justice (ECJ) is in charge of interpreting the union’s laws. The Court has three sub-courts; namely the European Court of Justice, the General Court and the Civil Service Tribunal (Archer 2008, 144). It is the final body in handling the conflicts between member states, businesses and individual. It has been designed to listen to cases whereby a nation has breached the EU directives, has been sued, if a member of the union has failed to take the required action, due to a directive from the European Commission or based on decisions of the national courts of member state (Aqin 2009,166). Current Achievements/Failures The EU has been a successful union with many achievements to its name. These include effective common legislature, joint venture programs to boost regional unity, improved peace and security within the region- 60 years of peaceful relations, the reduction of cost of living of members of the region, and the promotion of trade and economic cooper ation among members. The EU has adopted an effective Common Market policy, results which can be seen in the economic prosperity of the region. In 2002 the national currencies in 12 member states were replaced with Euro Notes, excluding one of the hindrances for more effective cooperation within the bloc and providing new opportunities for further economical integration of the region. Previously, the shortcomings of the region included: poor energy policies and failure to agree on common security/military policies (Edwards 2002, 43). The Lisbon Treaty which was signed on December 2007 and came into force on December 2009 was aimed at addressing the issues of new energy sources and security threats. As the result of negotiations between the EU’s 27 member states, the Treaty covered the coherent tools for the union to strengthen the common energy and security policies (â€Å"Taking Europe into 21st Century†). However, concentrating on the internal restructuring, the EU un derestimated the importance of foreign policy. The current EU’s foreign policy chief Catherine Ashton did not attend the Asem summit and the meeting of Asean-EU foreign Ministers in Madrid in 2010, not demonstrating proper interest in the foreign affairs (Islam â€Å"A Seat for the EU at East Asia’s Top Table†). The appointment of Von Rompuy and Catherine Ashton as the EU officials did not strengthen the positions of the union and its infrastructure because of their relatively low profiles of representatives of their states. Though the military sector remains the weak point of the bloc policies, the recent shift in the historical opposition between Atlanticism supporting NATO and Europeanism requiring development of EU defense institutions has been observed. The idea of creating the EU army has occurred but its realization remains distant. Expansion vs. Integration Further paths of development of the international arrangement gave rise to debates among the theor eticians. Some of them argued that the European Union should focus on widening by expanding to the south and to the east; others insisted on deepening the integration processes among the current members, and the third group of specialists suggested uniting the two strategies. The EU has initially opted for the expansionist approach, but has recently switched gears and moved on to the mixed approach. In 1993, the Copenhagen European Council concluded that â€Å"the associated countries in eastern and central Europe that so desire shall become members of the EU† (McDonald 2005, 14). The potential members had to meet the three criteria: democracy, developed market economy and the ability to adapt to the Community strategies. At the same time, the process of geographical expansion was parallel to deepening the integration. Thus, both strategies of deepening and widening are significant for further development of the EU and cannot be separated. Prospects for the Future Along with all the achievements of the European Union, it has a number of challenges which need to be handled for future effective cooperation of the member states. Flexibility is one of the key aspects of the future prospects of the European Union. â€Å"A particularly important form of flexibility in the EU is differentiation: that is policy development and activity in which not all member states are involved† (Nugent 2006, 585). An example of implementation of this approach is the open method of cooperation for handling some of the social issues. Thus, the emphasis is partially shifted to networking among the member states instead of traditional legislative-based form of regulation. The EU plans of deepening and widening approaches it is increasingly becoming a challenge for the bloc. Along with the deepening of the relationships among the members, the bloc negotiates the opportunities of cooperation with other regions and unions—including blocs such as Mercosur. Integration i n South America Conditions in the Southern Cone and Brazil: Nationalism vs. Internationalism The Southern Cone states and Brazil are characterized with their historical reliance on foreign capital. This aspect had a significant impact on the level of economic development of this South American sub-region, which caused an external vulnerability of these states and their currency over-valuation along with the negative social consequences in the spheres of employment and welfare provision. The establishment of the regional bloc Mercosur in 1991 indicated the beginning of the era of regionalism, in an attempt of the neighboring countries to unite their efforts to solve their common issues and creating the conditions for a long-lasting and effective cooperation. The South American Common Market (Mercosur) is a regional bloc composed of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Venezuela is currently awaiting the confirmation of Paraguay to access the union as a full member. Mercosur also has four associate countries namely Peru, Columbia, Bolivia, and Chile. The bloc is a result of the improvement the region has made after several earlier attempts to establish an integrated region in Latin America since 1960; it was formed in an attempt to promote free trade and movement of people within the member states (Lang 2002, 93). Early Attempts of Integration and why they failed Among some of the reasons for the failure of the previous attempts for regional integration in South America were the lack of cooperation among members, the priority given to individual interests instead of regional interests, the economic and political instability among countries, the lack of political and economic incentive for some member states, the international interference from developed countries with special interests in Latin America, and the general lack of international political goodwill (Dominguez 2004, 65). The formation of the South American Common Market (MERCOSUR) Mercosur evolved from LAFTA (Latin American Free Trade Agreement) that was formed in the 1960’s to promote free trade among Latin American states (Fabbrini 2005, 84). In the 1980, LAIA replaced LAFTA, changing the free trade zones with preferential trade zones. The conditions presented by this union encouraged bilateral trade activities between the member countries. In 1986 Brazil and Argentina signed a set of commercial protocols that gave way to the 1988 Integration, Cooperation and Development (ICD) treaty. The ICD treaty was geared towards the formation of a free market between the two countries in ten years. Argentina and Brazil saw the need to integrate with Paraguay and Uruguay, mainly because of the great â€Å"historical debt† they have towards their smaller neighbors— especially with Paraguay, taking into account that Argentina and Brazil devastated Paraguay in the Triple Alliance War (1865-1870) (Mattli 1999, 116) and the need the need for more markets to export thei r products. The decades of cooperation between European states became a useful experience, which provided many solutions to the common problems. The initial agreements of Mercosur were focused on domestic regional policies for accommodating the variety of interests of the member states. The prevailing principle of this bloc is the open regionalism which presupposes the unilateral trade liberalization and the attraction of the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows (Phillips 2004, 86). Mercosur is geared towards the promotion of free flow of goods and services, the formation of laws and legislature which aids the integration, and the adoption of a singular trade policy and the development of policies that encourage competition and economic cooperation among its member states. Current Institutions As Mercosur is developing as a bloc, its various institutions are also evolving. The current institutions are namely the Common Market Council, The Common Market Group, The Administrative Off ice, Parlasur (Mercosur’s Parliament), The Trade Commission and the Work Subgroups. The Common Market Council is the top level institution of Mercosur, since it has the authority to conduct the policy of the bloc (Mace 1999, 132). The Council is made up of one government representatives from each member state. The Common Market Group is the executive body of Mercosur. It is responsible for ensuring that member states adhere to the signed treaties and for implementing the decisions of the Common Market Council. The Administrative office of the union is responsible for the research and records for the union (Hass 1958, 190). Parlasur (Mercosur’s parliament) is the law-making body of the bloc. As compared to the EU’s bodies, the level of it’s institutionalization is rather humble and Parlasur’s consultative status how distant it is from the construction and functions of a real legislature (Dri 2009, 69). The Works Subgroups, on its part, assist the Co mmon Market Groups. The Trade Commission assists the executive and to promote the free and fair trade among member states. Finally, the work subgroups work under the Common Market Group and serve to collect data on various aspects of the union such as commerce, fiscal policy, social security, employment and on different policies that are pertinent to the union (Dominguez 2004, 94). For now, the main objective of Mercosur’s bodies is the achievement of consensus between the governments of the member states so that later the level of supranationalism from EU bodies can be achieved. Though the idea of adopting the model of the EU Parliament was not supported previously, the recent changes made to Parlasur made it even more democratic and increasingly more similar to the EU’s parliament. The people from each member state are now able to vote for their representatives (Williams 1996, 126). Degree of success/failure: Policy Coordination Some of Mercosur’s major achiev ements include: the improved trade and cooperation among members, the bloc has expanded greatly since its inception and economic growth among member countries has increased as there has been significant improvement in the GDP of member states (Mora 2003, 95). Achieving the objective of crating the conditions for the free movement of goods, about 89 % of intra-Mercosur trade was tariff-free. The majority of goods with the exception of motor vehicles and sugar have paid zero tariff rates since late 1990s (Bouzas 2008, 2). In the case of Paraguay and Uruguay, their economies are significantly growing within the last few years. In 2010, Paraguay is expected to grow over 10 percent, becoming the leader in economic recovery in Latin America. As for the other Mercosur countries (Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay) they have also grown at considerably high rates; proving that Mercosur is emerging strong from the recent economic crisis. Some of the limitations of the union are: the lack of cooper ation among member states on certain issues (i.e. mainly because of the opposition of Argentina and Brazil on certain issues that are beneficial towards the development projects in Paraguay and Uruguay), some political issues that were reflected in the weakening of Mercosur’s institutions. For instance, the reliance on the parliament of Brazil for the disbursement of Mercosur’s Convergence Funds (FOCEM) that are used to finance infrastructure projects in the weaker economies of the blocs. In the ongoing project to construct a 500 Kv powerline in Paraguay, which is urgently needed in the country before 2012 to avoid a major economic catastrophe, Brazil is putting several obstacles and using its economic power as a political tool to maintain an almost â€Å"hegemonic control† over the bloc— a situation that is angering the other Mercosur members. The Itaipu dilemma and the related negotiations drew the public attention to the problems of regulation of the r elationships between the member states inside of Mercosur. According to the terms of the 1973 Itaipu 50-year Treaty, Paraguay is obliged to sell the largest portion of its unused energy (about 90%) at low price although each country owns 50 % of the enterprise (Nickson â€Å"Revising the Past†). The Itaipu Treaty is set to expire in 2023; however, in 2009 Brazilian President Lula promised to offer a â€Å"better deal† to Paraguay. It means that Mercosur implements an intergovernmental approach to settling the conflicts between the member states as opposed to EU in which the functions of ECJ include regulating the relationships between the members. The Lula-Lugo Agreement from 25 July 2009 indicated the beginning of a new stage in the Itaipu negotiations (Codas â€Å"Nueva Etapa Se Abre Con La Là ­nea De 500 Kv†). Reaching the consensus, the interested parties planned the beginning of the 500 Kv construction project for the end of 2010. The 500 Kv construction p roject can provide jobs to many citizens in Mercosur countries and will positively affect the Paraguayan economy (i.e. reducing poverty and inequality in the country), as well as give energy security to the rest of the region; taking into account that the Bi-national hydroelectric repress provides a considerable amount of energy to the bloc. The main achievements of Mercosur include the decrease of the tempos of inflation within its member states and the stabilization of the economic growth of the states of the bloc without decreasing the level of employment in the region. Model to be followed: The EU Model? Mercosur is expected to grow and evolve within the next few decades. However, this will be a gradual process and might take extra effort from its members before achieving the level of development of the EU and other established unions (Luis 2007, 51). On the one hand, adopting the experience of the EU and following the model of the institutional structure of the European bloc an d its schemes of decision making would be beneficial for the Mercosur. On the other hand, it is important to consider the differences between the regional unions and the peculiarities of the current situation before implementing the same strategies. It should be noted that at present time, Mercosur is at its core stage of development. Because of the region’s unique historical background and conditions and peculiarities, Mercosur might not obtain the same results using by using the strategies the EU uses. It should be carefully analyzed which are the strategies that are optimal to enhance the effectiveness and exclude those that are not. Comparison Between Mercosur and the EU The History of Bilateral Relations and Inter-Regional Cooperation The negotiations between the EU and the Mercosur started soon after the establishment of the two blocs, specifically aiming at strengthening their economical ties. Within the latest decade, the relationships between the EU and the Mercosur have expanded significantly to include other important areas. These two unions have signed bilateral trade agreements and continued to carry out inter-regional cooperation policies. In 1991, the EU signed a bilateral agreement with Argentina and later signed another agreement with Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay in 1992. These bilateral agreements were meant to promote trade between the two the countries of the two regions, promote industrial cooperation, foster exchange of agricultural technology, conservation and protection of natural resources and economic partnership. In 1995, a more comprehensive agreement was signed between the EU and all Mercosur states. This agreement covered trade between the unions, integration issues between the unions, economic cooperation issues and institutional issues. This agreement was meant to promote free trade and cooperation between these two unions, but at the same time operate according to the World Trade Organization (WTO) policies. This agreeme nt also addressed the need for a more complete education and training of the youth in the EU and Mercosur and its importance on the future of the bi-regional integration. Concurrent Goals/Objectives Though Mercosur and the EU aim at the broader goal of global integration, these two blocs have a number of differences in their institutional structure and processes of policy-making. Both the EU and the Mercosur have many similar objectives but implement different strategies for achieving the results. The difference is the weight and preference that each union puts on each of the target. For example, both unions are geared towards the promotion of free movement of goods, people and services, formulation of policies on the economy of the region and of the member states and formulation of trade policies to be used by the union and the member states (Preusse 2008, 40). In addition, the historical backgrounds of both blocs differ significantly. In Europe, the two world wars had chaotic effe cts on the economies and the quality of life of citizens; therefore, promoting regional integration seemed to be the only solution in that continent. In South America, there have been mostly peaceful relations among states. Mercosur as a bloc was not primarily intended to avoid an armed conflict, as there have been peaceful relations among its member states for a long time—with the only exception of the Chaco War fought by Paraguay and Bolivia (1932-1935). In contrast with the Latin American historical tradition, the concept of historical Pan-Europeanism implies that the EU community has always possessed a set of political and economical values which have been replacing the state-based systems of their member states. The next important difference between the blocs is the institutional organization of the blocs, which has a significant impact on the integration processes among the member states of the unions as well as the effectiveness of their cooperation. Mercosur is headed by a Common Market Council, which is made up of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs from each member state. On its part, the EU is headed by the Council of the EU (prime ministers and presidents) – the Council of Europe is an entirely different organization. This council comprises of ministers from member states, the secretariat, the committee of permanent representatives and the president (Rozanwurcel 2007, 179). In terms of the EU administration, the union uses the umbrella of the Commission. The secretariat which works under the council is responsible for carrying out administrative activities on behalf of the council. All the subgroups that work under the EU are coordinated by the committee of permanent representatives. Mercosur, on its part, is made up of work groups that are directly answerable to the Common market group (Laursen 2003, 59). Compared to Mercosur, the advantage of the EU as a bloc is its maturity. The initial European agreements root back to the 1950s. The EU has evolved from the European Steel and Coal Community that was formed in 1954. The European Steel and Coal Community later started its evolution phase by the formation of the European community in 1957. On its part, Mercosur evolved from LAFTA (Latin American Free Trade Agreement) that was formed in the 1960’s to promote free trade among Latin American states (Fabbrini 2005, 84). EU-Mercosur Economic Relations At present, The EU is Mercosur’s most important trade partner, while Mercosur in its turn is the EU’s ninth trade partner. During the 1990s Mercosur’s imports from the EU increased more than 235 %, while exports from Mercosur to the EU increased from $ 14.8 billion to $ 20.2 billion (Arenas 2002, 4). It is significant that the majority of the Mercosur’s export products are agriculture-based and it makes the position of Mercosur dependent upon the external factors such as the prices on coffee or meat in the world (Lehmann â€Å"The EU and Mercosur†). Though the importance of the EU as the Mercosur’s target market for export has been decreasing during the 1990s, the EU remains its main source of import. These tendencies need to be taken into consideration for analysis of the trade negotiations between the blocs. Trade Negotiations During the Rio Summit in 1999, both blocs demonstrated their interest in gradual liberalization of the trade between Mercosur and EU. The seven rounds of the trade negotiations improved the cooperation between the blocs significantly. The fifth round was the most significant for the development of bilateral economical relations between the blocs. It was held on July 2001 and indicated the progress of the negotiations process because the important issues of liberalization of trade were discussed during it. The sixth round took place on October 2001 in Brussels, and it was focused on science and technology problems along with the trade issues. The seventh round took place on Apri l 2002 in Buenos Aires when the measures for liberalization of the trade were defined. The latest Seventeenth meeting of the Mercosur-European Union Committee took place in June-July 2010 in Buenos Aires. The delegates from the two blocs negotiated the three major spheres of future cooperation of the member unions, namely the political dialogue, trade and the creation of the Association Agreement between the regional blocs. It was agreed that the text of the proposals for the Agreement will be discussed during the following meetings. The main achievement of the negotiations was the settlement of the issues of competition policies for the trade between the states, including the development of anti-dumping policies and the implementation of the rule of origin for the import and export of the goods (â€Å"Seventeenth Meeting of the Mercosur-European Union Bi-Regional Negotiations Committee†). The negotiation processes have demonstrated the interest of the delegates from both uni ons in further development of the trade and political relations between the states. Foreign aid: Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Though the EU is one of the main sources of foreign aid for Latin America (especially Mercosur), Mercosur members are not among its primary targets because of their relative prosperity in comparison to other countries of the region. For this reason, the issue of the financial aid was discussed as a separate point in 1995 when the Cooperation Agreement was signed. The primary purpose of providing the financial support to Mercosur is creating the conditions for improving the institutional structure of the union and preparing for liberalization of the trade with the EU (â€Å"Enhancing the EU’s Policy on Mercosur†). The EU is not only assisting the Mercosur to make entry into global trade but also provides technical support to the bloc. The good relationship between Mercosur and the EU has enabled Mercosur to benefit greatly from the investments made by the EU into the region. The EU has invested greatly into Mercosur and is currently the largest foreign investor in stocks in the region. These trade policies are geared to promoting economic prosperity of the two regions and facilitate further integration (Richardson 2006, 101). The EU is responsible for up to 20% of Mercosur’s trade revenue. This totals to an average of 80 billion dollars in a year. Such a relationship is helpful as it helps the Mercosur earn revenue that is used in improving infrastructure, building schools, building hospitals and in improving the quality of life for people in the Mercosur. The EU also benefits by securing a supply for its products and raw materials. Critics of the aid program believe that since Mercosur is not a producer of a wide assortment of products, the focus that the EU is giving on trade with the region is unlikely to yield the expected kind of returns. However, as time progresses, those assumptions are beginning to be prov en wrong (Frank 2000, 122). Security and Defense The cooperation between these two regions also covers some military and defense issues. The EU manufactures military equipment for export. Mercosur countries are major consumers of British military equipment. The British also provide training on the use and maintenance of the machinery. Mercosur, like its partner the EU, is determined to implement energy efficient production systems that properly utilize the available energy (Aqin 2009, 55). The European Union is an important trade partner of the South American bloc and the issue of creating a free trade area is under consideration at the moment. The EU has also committed itself to providing technical assistance and knowhow so as to improve the quality of medical care in the region. This is both through exchange programs that facilitate the training of doctors from Mercosur in the EU and through provision of machines and equipment for Mercosur hospitals. The agreement also facilitates the exchange of students among these regions and the sharing of knowledge between research institutions. Conclusion The ongoing cooperation process taking place between Mercosur and the EU can be explained with the contemporary shift from nationalism to regionalism, and eventually to globalization, in the sphere of international relations. Effective cooperation between neighboring countries have proven to be extremely beneficial, as states started creating international arrangements to promote peaceful relations, developing common policies to get rid of the economic frontiers and the main hindrances for the development of the region in general and every individual member state of the union in particular. This study brings to light the distinct differences and similarities of the integration processes of the EU and the Mercosur, explaining the roots of the differences and their effect on the level of integration between the countries and the effectiveness of their cooperation. The d ifferences in the historical and economical development of the regions, the primary goals for creating the unions and the main strategies for achieving these goals became the preconditions for the unique paths of integration between the member states. Adopting the experience of the EU, including the institutional organization and the wide range of the spheres for the integration of the countries could be advantageous for the Mercosur on the condition of adopting it to the peculiarities and needs of the South American region. The main challenges of Mercosur as an intergovernmental bloc include the asymmetry between the member states which is caused by their disproportionate economical development and the lack of institutionalization within its structure. These regional peculiarities are the significant hurdles for using the EU model for future development of Mercosur, its bodies, inner and foreign policies. Brazil as the Mercosur’s dominant power has established bilateral rela tionship with EU since 2007 and this shows how a trend towards global open economy can hinder bilateral regionalism. Considering the fact that the bilateral economical relations between EU and Mercosur cannot be defined as harmonious, and comparing the figures of export and import rates as well as the range of goods in both categories, it should be concluded that Mercosur with its primarily agricultural orientation is dependent upon numerous external factors along with the trading terms. Summing up all the differences in historical background, institutional structure, the economical development and distribution of resources between the member states in EU and Mercosur as well as the development of their bilateral relations, only separate fragments of EU model can be applied for further development of Mercosur on the condition of adapting them to the realities and demands of the Latin American regional bloc. References Aqin, Nora and Rubà ©n Caro. Polà ­ticas Publicas, Derechos, y Trabajo Social en el Mercosur.  Bueno Aires: Espacio Editorial S.R.L., 2009. Print. Arenas, Mariela. â€Å"Economic Relations of the European Union and Mercosur† Miami-Florida EU Center. Oct. 2002. Web. http://www6.miami.edu/eucenter/mariela.pdf Archer, Clive. The European Union. New York: Routledge, 2008. Print. Bouzas, Roberto. â€Å"The Politics and Economics of Mercosur: Old Challenges, New Approaches†. Center for Hemispheric Policy: University of Miami. 19 March 2008. Web. https://www6.miami.edu/hemispheric-policy/Bouzas_Perspectives_Paper.pdf Codas, Gustavo. â€Å"Nueva Etapa se Abre Con la Là ­nea de 500 Kv†. La Prensa. 16 Nov. 2010. Web. http://www.laprensa.com.py/v1/index.php?option=com_contentview=articleid=6753%3Anueva-etapa-se-abre-con-la-linea-de-500-kvcatid=46%3Aciencia-y-tecnologiaItemid=69 Dominguez, Francisco. Mercosur: Between Integration and Democracy. Switzerland: European Academic Publishers, 2004. Print. Dri, Clarissa. At What Point D oes a Legislature Become Institutionalized? The Mercosur Parliament’s Path. Brazilian Political Science Review, 2009 3 (2): 60-97. â€Å"Enhancing the EU’s policy on Mercosur†. Europa: Summaries of EU Legislation. n. a. July 2005. Web. http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/external_relations/relations_with_third_countries/latin_america/r14012_en.htm Edwards, Geoffrey. The European Union: Annual review of the EU 2001/2002. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2002. Print. Fabbrini, Sergio. Democracy and Federalism in the European Union and the United  States. New York: Routledge, 2005. Print. Frank, Stephen. Money and European Union. New York: St. Martin Press, 2000. Print. Giordano, Paolo. The External Dimension of Mercosur: Prospects for North-South Integration. Buenos Aires: Intal. 2009. Print. Hass, Ernst. The Uniting of Europe: Political, Social, and Economic Forces. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958. Print. Islam, Shada. â€Å"A Seat for the EU at East Asia’s Top Table†. EUObserver. 11 Nov. 2010. Web.http://euobserver.com/9/31241 Lang, Catharina. The Trade Negotiations Between the EU and Mercosur. Norderstedt: Druck and Bindung, 2002. Print. Laursen, Finn. Comparative Regional Integration: Theoretical Perspectives. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2003. Print. Lehmann, Christian. â€Å"The EU and Mercosur: Can the EU Get Its Foot in the Door of Latin America’s Main Market†. The Panama News May 2007. Web. http://www.thepanamanews.com/pn/v_13/issue_09/opinion_05.html Lorenzo, Fernando and Diego Aboal. Fundamentos Para la Cooperacion Macroeconomica en  el Mercosur. California: Siglo Veintiuno, 2006. Print. Luis, Machinea. Mercosur : In Search of a New Agenda. Buenos Aires: Institute of Integration, 2007. Print. Mace, Gordon. The Americas in Transition: The Contours of Regionalism. Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999. Print. Mansfield, Edward and Helen Milner (eds.) The Political Economy of Regionalism . New York: Columbia University Press. 1997. Print. Mattli, Walter. The Logic of Regional Integration: Europe and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print. McDonald, Frank and Stephen Dearden (eds.). European Economic Integration. London: Pearson Education Limited. 2005. Print. Mora, Frank and Jeanne Hey. Latin American and Caribbean Foreign Policy. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. 2003. Print. Morgante, Martin. Mercosur, Relaciones y Tratados. California: Ediciones Al Margen, 2003. Print. Nickson, Andrew. â€Å"Revising the Past: The Paraguayan Energy Sector in Perspective†. The University of Birmingham Website. n.d. Web. http://www.download.bham.ac.uk/idd/pdfs/paraguayan-energy-sector.pdf Nugent, Neill. The Government and Politics of the European Union. New York: Duke University Press, 2006. Print. Phillips, Nicola. The Southern Cone Model: The Political Economy of Regional Capitalist Development in Latin America. New York: Routledge. 2004. Print. Piattoni, Simona. Informal Governance in the European Union. Northampton: Edward Edgar Publishing, 2003. Print. Preusse, Heinz. The New American Regionalism. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press, 2008. Print. Regions: Mercosur. European Commission Trade. n.a. n.d. Web. http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/bilateral-relations/regions/mercosur/ Richardson, Jeremy. European Union: Power and Policy-Making. New York: Routledge, 2006. Print. Roett, Riordan. Mercosur: Regional Integration, World Markets. New York: Lynne Rienner, 1999. Print. Rozanwurcel, Gianella, Bezchinsky, and Thomas Andreas. Innovacion a Escala  Mercosur. Buenos Aires: Acadic Books, 2007. Print. â€Å"Seventeenth Meeting of the Mercosur-European Union Bi-Regional Negotiations Committee†. 29 June – 02 July 2010. Puntofocal Governmental Archive. Web. http://www.puntofocal.gov.ar/doc/xvii_cnb.pdf â€Å"Taking Europe into the 21st Century†. Europe. Treaty of Lisbon. n.a. n.d. Web. h ttp://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/take/index_en.htm Williams, Richard. European Union spatial policy and planning. London: Sage Books, 1996. Print. This thesis on The European Union and Mercosur was written and submitted by user Kylie Trujillo to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

THE UPS AND DOWNS OF BOOK PROMOTION

THE UPS AND DOWNS OF BOOK PROMOTION If you thought writing a book creates emotional upheaval, wait until you try to market it! Nope, people dont just step up and buy the book. You have to subtly, tastefully, skillfully remind them that this book is a tremendous investment without saying, Buy this book. Do you know how hard that is? It means chatting with people and mentioning youre an author, then having all these great one-liner answers to any questions they might ask . . . in hopes those answers convince them to buy. It means being available for signing events, sometimes driving hundreds of miles, only to sell eight books . . .and smiling through it all. It means answering every email with courtesy, cheerfulness, patience, and enthusiasm . . . EVERY email. It means being doubted It means giving away more books than you probably expected, and spending hundreds of dollars in postcards, posters, gas, business cards, website design and more, (much more if you self-publish) as you think maybe the next book will recoup that back for you . . . and hopefully much more. But it also means people gush over how the story resonated with them . . . and you almost cry at each and every time you hear a new person express their enjoyment. It means you dive into the next book, and the next, anxious to show how much better a writer you are now . . . because now you have readers asking when the next book comes out. It means you squeal when someone enjoys a phrase you spent hours perfecting, fighting so hard to make it look easy. There is no arrival in this journey of writing a book. Its always an uphill climb. About the time you have a momentous occasion, youre slapped with two stars instead of five, or some bookstore owner who says, Come back and see me once youve published a second book, or you send out review copies and the reviewer never delivers. About the time family and friends give you great responses, you learn of several who never find time to read it. And you learn to laugh about it . . . laugh about it ALL. You chose this path. Everyone told you it was difficult.Yet you travel it anyway, because seeing your precious stories born to the world is no different than having children. Once you birth those babies you have to commit to the good and the bad of the experience. Some are easier to raise than others, and all of them cause you angst sooner or later. But in the end, you love the heck out of them. Mainly because they are a part of you.

Music of history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Music of history - Essay Example All potential meaning of dreams today comes from his work. The first conflict to take place in the age of electronic distributed music was the 2nd World War. This made the 2nd World War a unique situation for music and its relationship with conflict. At the time, so many people could listen to a single performance and this made music a very effective way of communication. Every culture known in the world, all people even in the most isolated in the world have some form of music. As such, music is influenced by cultural aspects which include social and economic experiences. It expresses varying emotions and ideals, played and listened to in different situations. The attitude s of the composers, players and listeners also keep on varying in different regions and times. Recording music has left professional musicians out of work due to evils like pirating in the society. One can however say recording has liberated music as thousands of songs in MP3 players can be tucked in our purses and its history is available in disks (Katz, 100). Finally, as a result of recording, one does not have to attend live concerts to know music

Marijuana Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marijuana - Essay Example The latter group has, therefore, joined efforts to advocate for legalization of the drug. This paper seeks to present a rhetoric analysis of two articles on the debate about legalization of Marijuana. While one article advocates for legalization, the other adopts a balanced approach that highlights reasons for and against legalization of the drug. The first article, ‘The top ten Reasons Marijuana Should be Legal’ is authored under a corporate organization known as AlterNet. The author, in a bid to advocate for legalization of the drug, highlights a number of reasons for the opinion. According to Alertnet, even though the drug is currently illegal, its production, trade, and consumption is still high, an indicator that the legislations are ineffective. This presents the opinion that making the drug illegal has not achieved intended objectives of controlling Marijuana’s adverse effects. Alternet, therefore, aims at informing policy-makers and the public about the cu rrent policy’s irrelevance. Contrary to the perceived disadvantages and adverse side effects of the drug, the author identifies potential legal, economic, and social benefits that are associated with legalizing the drug. Marijuana for instance can be used as medicine and is less toxic as compared to some of the legalized drugs. The author argues that it â€Å"is not a lethal drug and is safer than alcohol† (Alternet, 2). Legalizing the drug, according to the author, would also promote the growth of its parent plant as an â€Å"agricultural crop† and further social value as a source of â€Å"bio-fuel to reduce carbon emissions† and help offset national balance of trade deficit by controlling outflow of money through the drug’s importation (Alternet, 1). In this approach, Alternet appeals to the society to change its perception of the drug and to exploit, with an open mind, the potential benefits of the drug in terms of agricultural harvests, income generation, medicinal value and economic benefit of enlarged gross domestic product (Alternet, p. 1, 2). The author begins the article by illustrating the current policy’s inability to meet statutory laws’ objectives that aim at prohibiting production and use of Marijuana, and instead identify the fact that a large proportion of the American population is still locked up in abusing the drug. The author follows this argument with an outlined set of reasons that approve legalization of the commodity, and this identifies his application of logos to persuade the audience that Marijuana should be legalized. This is because the article refutes effectiveness of the current laws that have illegalized the drug and succeeds in pointing out the fact that the legalization will lead to a number of benefits that include solutions to side effects associated with the drug. The writer’s approach informs the audience that legal restriction of the drug does not achieve legislation ’s intentions and is inconsiderate of economic and social concerns that would benefit the society. As a result, the article gives rise to a reconsideration of the current legal position on the drug towards a more realistic set of laws that respect people’s freedom and promote economic benefits of investment in the drug that is not as harmful as other legalized drugs (Alternet, p. 1, 2). The next article, ‘Should marijuana be legalized under any circumstance?’

The challenges, benefits and trade-offs of expanding the reach of Essay

The challenges, benefits and trade-offs of expanding the reach of international law - Essay Example The essay will discuss what is done normatively, touching upon individual rights and responsibilities at the institutional level. Benefits A number of things have evolved normatively and also at the institutional level to incorporate individual responsibilities and rights in international law. This has led to the significant advancements and benefits for individuals. Firstly, the individual rights are recognized in a more formal and appropriate capacity, as it is evident within the context of the Universal Declaration of The Human Rights. It identifies the people’s dignity and also the equal and inseparable rights of individuals, such as freedom of belief and speech. These rights should be protected by the rule of law. It became adopted in 1948 by the General Assembly of the United Nations. It indicated that member-countries had to publicize the Declaration text, disseminate, display, and have it revised principally in all educational institutions, without distinctions based o n the status of the political mood of nations or territories. This has enabled the education of individuals about their rights on a global scale (Diehl, 2009). The fact that there is the documentation of the rights and they have become codified provided people with confidence to step forward and seek protection when their rights are violated. For example, the Geneva Convention and its two added protocols regulate the behaviour in an armed conflict. It is now common for soldiers globally to treat each and every person injured in combat with the same respect and dignity even if he or she is an enemy. The more people become aware of their fundamental human rights, the easier it is to take steps in cases of abuse. Citizens who have their rights violated with no action taken by their government will become aware that justice is possible within the framework of the International Law (Sharon, 2010). Not only is the International Law efficient or effective but it also is a departure point, and it contains extensive potentials. In different instances, individuals seek compensation for injuries and are able to help other sufferers in the future. There are other instances where individuals do not have their government on their behalf. For example, when the 16 year old Michael Dominiques sentenced to death for committing murder in the state of Nevada lost his appeal in 2000 at the Supreme Court, he took it forward to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. His state had failed to protect the third article of the United Nations Charter, the right to life. He had the opportunity of taking the law into his own hands and claiming that the application of the death penalty would violate the United States treaty and the customary international law refusing the execution of juveniles. Based on the fact that the execution of criminal offenders under the age of 18 was considered an issue of jus cogens in international customary law, the sitting judge concluded that executing a minor would be a grave and irreparable violation. Dominique’s life was spared due to the international law. Also, with the help of Roper versus Simmons case, by 2005 America changed its stance and proclaimed that the death penalty for minors would be considered

Effects of Caffeine on 30m Multiple Sprint Performance

Effects of Caffeine on 30m Multiple Sprint Performance ABSTRACT The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of caffeines proposed ergogenic capabilities upon human sprint times and performance. Twelve female sports students (20  ± 2 yr, 1.64  ± 0.05 m, 58.9  ± 3.9 kg) were utilized as the subjects for this investigation which was conducted in the Oxstalls Sport Hall, Gloucester, using the light gate equipment. All subjects were familiarized with the experimental design and apparatus before proceeding. The necessary forms were signed by the participants and personal information acquired. Subjects were administered either caffeine (5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of body mass) or placebo, and ingested the substance 1 hour prior to testing in a single blind fashion. After a 5 minute warm up, 12 x 30 metre sprints were performed by each subject with a 30 second interval between each sprint. The experiment was repeated a week later using the same procedure but with the participants taking the opposite substance to the previous weeks test. Subsequent to the interpretation of the data, fastest sprint time (s), mean sprint time (s), fatigue and RPE were obtained. All of which were examined statistically, the paired t-test was used as a test of significance, the mean as a measure of central tendency and standard deviation as a measure of reliability and variance. Fastest sprint times decreased from 5.34  ± 0.27 s to 5.27  ± 0.25 s when taking caffeine compared to placebo. Mean sprint times decreased slightly from 5.56  ± 0.29 s to 5.55  ± 0.29 s when consuming caffeine. RPE again showed a slight decrease from 14  ± 1 to 13  ± 1 using Borgs (1982) 6-20 scale after caffeine ingestion. Using the fatigue index as recommended by Glaister et al. (2004), caffeine showed an increase (5.16  ± 1.91) compared to placebo (4.13  ± 1.51). It was concluded that 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of body mass of caffeine did have a significant effect on fastest sprint time and RPE, and that fatigue was heightened when taking caffeine. Though it did not have any significant ergogenic effects on mean sprint times at the p CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION Deliberate ingestion of caffeine within sport is the focus for this study. It is caffeines supposed ergogenic properties in relation to sporting performance which will be investigated. Caffeine, also known chemically as trimethylxanthine, is one of the most common drugs in the world, with the benefit of having minimal health risks attached to taking it (Graham, 2001). It is among the most widely used drugs because of its ubiquitous occurrence in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea and cola. Many drugs contain caffeine and are readily accessible to the public in the form of over the counter (OTC) stimulants and combination analgesics. Due to this accessibility and its social acceptance, caffeine plays a major part in the western diet, with over 80% of the adult population consuming the drug on a daily basis through various methods (Schwenk, 1997). With caffeine consumption being so common, its positive and negative effects are noticed so easily. The study will look into its potential positive ergogenic effects due to its ever increasing popularity in sporting performance. Earlier studies by Pasman et al. (1995), Bell and McLellan (2002), Greer et al. (2000), Graham and Spriet (1995), regarding caffeines ergogenicity, are linked to effects upon endurance times rather than sprint performance. Increased endurance performance is supported by many of the studies, and rarely have they found to be no effect (Butts and Crowell, 1985) and (Falk et al., 1990). Due to it ergogenic properties, caffeines popularity has increased in sporting contexts. This investigation is primarily concerned with attempting to assess caffeines effectiveness as an ergogenic aid in respect of its effects upon the anaerobic energy system, and its subsequent relevance to sprint times and fatigue in women. By implementing multiple sprint tests, this will provide the necessary data required for evaluating the anaerobic energy system, sprint times and fatigue. Caffeine is a natural substance, which is utilized every day, whether it is in food, drink, medicine and more importantly for the purpose of this study, sport. It is caffeines ability to be used in a number of ways, which makes it an ever increasing drug in society. Applegate and Grivetti (1997) has claimed that caffeine has been used as a means of masking fatigue since the early 1900s, the use of this ergogenic aid became popular following widely publicized research indicating improved endurance performance. There may be other factors contributing to its increase in popularity over the years. For example, caffeine is seen as a socially acceptable drug in society, as mentioned earlier, its minimal health risks has made the substance generally recognized as safe (GRAS) according to the food and drug administration (FDA), meaning the intentional consumption of caffeine becomes less stigmatized. Another possible factor behind its popularity is the ever increasing demand for athletes to achieve and the pressure being placed upon them by themselves and outside sources. Such demands being placed on athletes at all levels, ranging from recreational to professional, will inevitably cause participants to seek out an advantage and give into the persuasion of the stimulants which is being forced upon them. Thus, leading to companies promoting and persuading athletes to use their products to achieve the best performance possible. Due to the increasingly competitive arena in which athletes find themselves, the promotion of performance enhancing substances are surrounding them almost daily. The legality and use of ergogenic aids such as caffeine has caused many debates and varied opinions about its uses in competitive sport. There are currently three categories in which substances can be classed; legal, controlled and illegal. In 1967, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) banned all performance enhancing drugs (PEDs). The formation of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999 took over the IOCs responsibilities regarding PEDs. The World Anti-Doping Agency reviewed the banned substances list in 2004 and changed the legality of caffeine, allowing athletes to take the substance. Though the caffeine is defined as legal, WADA are still monitoring athletes in order to detect any patterns of misuse within the sport. Caffeines positive ergogenic effects have been well documented in numerous sports, but caffeine consumption in sports like darts, archery and snooker can have a detrimental effect upon performance. The absorption of caffeine can lead to an increase in heart rate, restlessness, anxiety and hypertension, all of which could have a damaging effect upon sporting performance. However, in spite of some possible negative effects in a slight number of sports, caffeines popularity is ever increasing as a legal performance enhancer. Manufacturers of sporting performance supplements have, through their market research, recognized the increasing popularity and attraction of using performance enhancing supplements. Companies have tapped into a bona fide consumer need for energy. As a result of this, the market place has been flooded with masses of supposedly ergogenic concoctions. The market for energy products has grown tremendously, leaping from a niche market for endurance athletes to mainstream customers. Many products take the form of drinks containing caffeine, Red Bull is still the leader in that category, with about 50% of the market share. Since the emergence of Red Bull many copycat drinks have been produced and marketed as a performance enhancer. These drinks contain excessive amounts of caffeine and have been promoted as an ergogenic aid, though in many countries, energy drinks have been banned due to its potential health risks, especially with regards to children. The problem with proving the ergogenic effects of drinks like these is the varying tolerance levels of each individual, which according to Kendler and Prescott (1999) can depend on many factors, including caffeine consumption patterns, age, body weight and physical condition. In spite of this, athletes will still consume the caffeine products in order to gain that advantage and improve performance without realising some of the negative effects, such as dehydration. Extreme caffeine consumption can lead to possible side effects, which many consumers are oblivious too. Some of which are restlessness, diarrhoea, headaches, anxiety, insomnia, and in extreme circumstances, tachycardia or cardiac arrhythmia. It is important to consume caffeine in moderation; those who ingest large amounts regularly and then try to decrease their intake by a substantial amount can cause problems for themselves. Caffeine withdrawal can lead to symptoms such as sleepiness, irritability, headaches and in rare circumstances, nausea and vomiting. Phillips-Buteand Lane (1997) has suggested that headaches caused by caffeine withdrawal are due to the appropriate mechanisms of the body becoming oversensitive to adenosine. Due to this, blood pressure will drop excessively and cause excess blood in the head, leading to a headache. Still, with all the possible side effects of excessive consumption and withdrawal symptoms, caffeines popularity amongst the general public is unwavering. Companies are still promoting the benefits of caffeine without indulging in its flaws, particularly in the sporting sector, meaning its popularity raises even further. This investigation is concerned with how performance in sport can be improved by increased sprint speed and a decrease in fatigue after caffeine ingestion. Improvements in an athletes speed over short distances is vital in many sports, as the intensity and the pace of games are increasing in the current era. Such improvements can help in field and court sports such as football, tennis and hockey to name a few. Having the ability to run that split second quicker than an opposing athlete may make a dramatic impact upon the sporting performance, and most importantly the result. There has been a steady increase in the number of studies examining the effects of caffeine upon high intensity, short duration exercises, and more specifically, repeated sprints. This area is still up for investigation as caffeines ergogenic benefits are not so clear cut, as they are in endurance exercise. Many studies have produced results either supporting or diminishing any relationship between caffeine and repeated sprint performance, but each study varies on its reason behind such change. The study undertaken by Glaister et.al (2008) found results of that support a clear ergogenic effect of caffeine on repeated sprints but stated that further research is required to establish the mechanisms of this response. Papers by Glaister et.al (2008), Stuart et.al (2005), Paton et.al (2001) and Crowe et.al (2006) shall provide a solid base for research and literature regarding multiple sprints or high intensity short duration exercises. The rationale of this study is to evaluate and research the available literature, and moreover to examine in larger detail the responsible functions and mechanisms within the body that manipulate and contribute to the possible enhancement of sprint performance following an ingested dose of caffeine. The main purpose of this study is to conclude whether or not an administered dose of caffeine will improve sprint performance and to conclude whether caffeine is ergogenic in this specific subject area. The objective will be tested and achieved by firstly administering a certain dosage of caffeine subsequent to a pre test. Then after a certain period of absorption this will be followed by 12 x 30 metre sprints, which will hopefully provide the necessary results for the assessment of fastest and mean sprint times, followed by fatigue and RPE values. The methodology will be executed as efficiently and as accurately as possible, limiting the likelihood of any discrepancies creeping in and influencing the overall evaluation of results. The outcome of this investigation is expected to be valuable to the sporting world, and especially to athletes that partake in sports associated with the demands of fast sprints, such as those mentioned earlier. It will provide the necessary knowledge and allow athletes to consider the option of indulging in the use of what is at present a legal stimulant, helping them to optimize their sporting performances. CHAPTER 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 -Previous Studies The involvement of an all female participant group in this study means it opens up a new area of research. Previous research involving caffeine and exercise has always used a solely male or mixed sex sample. Bell and McLellan (2002) used 15 males and 6 females for their study, Crowe et al. (2006) also followed suit and used 12 males to only 5 females. More specifically, affects of caffeine in multiple sprint tests and short term high intensity exercises has provided an even more bias participant sample. A study by Paton et al. (2001) on the effects of caffeine ingestion on repeated sprints in team-sport athletes used 16 male participants. The most important study being that of Glaister et al. (2008) into the supplementation of caffeine in multiple sprint running performances, this study looked at 21 male participants and excluded females all together. Many of these studies have used forms of exercise and equipment for testing that are available to women. This distinct lack of researc h on solely women participants regarding the effects of caffeine has created a chance to look into this trend and the possible reasons behind it. WHY NOT SO MUCH ON WOMENâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬ BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEXES AND CAFFEINES EFFECTS. Biological differences between the 2 sexes may cause researchers to use mainly male participants. Although males and females are very much the same in build, there are some aspects that may vary and cause one of the sexes to act differently.A study by Farag et al. (2006) found that on the placebo session, men and women showed a significant BP increase to stress, although women had significant cardiac responses whereas men had vascular responses, therefore proving that males and females react differently to certain conditions. DIFFERENCE OF EFFECTS OF CAFFEIENE. WHY SPRINTING TEST LIMITATIONS MENSTRUAL CYCLE, CONTRACEPTIVE, PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE. The liver needed for caffeine metabolism. In healthy adults, caffeines half-life is approximately 4.9 hours. In women taking oral contraceptives this is increased to 5-10 hours (Meyer et al., 1999) and in pregnant women the half-life is roughly 9-11 hours (Ortweiler et al., 1985). 2.2 Mechanisms of Ergogenicity Caffeine acts as an A1 and A2a adenosine receptor antagonist, regular consumption of caffeine is associated with an up regulation of the number of these adenosine receptors in the vascular and neural tissues of the brain (Fredholm et al, 1999). Caffeine is metabolized in the tolerance for it; regular users do however develop a strong tolerance to this effect (Maughan Griffin, 2003). Studies by Armstrong et al (2007) have generally failed to support the common notion that ordinary consumption of caffeinated beverages contributes significantly to dehydration. RELIABILITY OF MULTIPLE SPRINT TEST GENDER DIFFERENCES RPE FATIGUE FASTEST MEAN PLACEBO DOSE The dosage from caffeine studies have ranged from 1-15mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1. The optimal dose has not been determined because it may vary according to the sensitivity of the individual to caffeine. However, Cadarette et al. (1982) found doses between 3and 6mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 produce an equivalent ergogenic effect to higher doses, and this has led Graham et al. (2000) to suggest that the optimal dose thus lies in this lower range. Using the findings established by others, participants will be administered 5mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 for the purpose of this research. Time After Ingestion Recent research from Bell and McLellan (2002) found that only exercise times 1and 3hours after drug ingestion were significantly greater than the respective placebo trials of 23.3 ±6.5,23.2 ±7.1,and 23.5 ±5.7min. For this research, the multiple sprints will take part 35 minutes after ingestion of the caffeine tablet, due to practical and time implications. Even though caffeine has a half-life of 4-6 hours, this implies that high levels of caffeine will be in the blood for up to 3-4 hours after ingestion, most studies have focused on exercise performance 1 hour after ingestion. Bonati et al. (1982) made the assumption that the ergogenic effect is related to the circulating level of the drug in the blood. Thus maximal effects are assumed to occur 1 hour after ingestion, when peak blood concentrations are observed. Studies by Nehlig and Derby (1994) suggested that waiting 3hours may be more optimal because the caffeine-induced effect on lipolysis is greater than at earlier times a fter ingestion. However, the hypothesis that the ergogenic effect from caffeine is due to an enhanced free fatty acid mobilization and tissue utilization has not found much support in the recent literature. On Exercise Using 24 well trained cyclists, Hogervorst et al. (2008) established that not only does a bar containing 100mg of caffeine have an impact on physiological endurance performance but also a complex cognitive ability during and after exercise. Crowe et al. (2006) conducted a similar test involving cycling and found both positive and negative results from the caffeine/placebo supplementation. Plasma caffeine concentrations significantly increased after caffeine ingestion; however, there were no positive effects on cognitive or blood parameters except a significant decrease in plasma potassium concentrations at rest. Potentially negative effects of caffeine included significantly higher blood lactate compared to control and significantly slower time to peak power in exercise bout 2 compared to control and placebo. Caffeine had no significant effect on peak power, work output, RPE, or peak heart rate. On Short Sprints There have been many studies that have looked at the effects of caffeine on short sprints or short duration high intensity exercises, which recreate in game scenarios from team sports. A study by Stuart et al (2005) on rugby players showed that caffeine is likely to produce substantial enhancement of several aspects of high-intensity team-sport performance. The effects of caffeine on mean performance ( ±90% confidence limits) on sprint speeds were, 0.5% ( ±1.7%) through 2.9% ( ±1.3%), showing a stong positive correlation regarding sprint speeds. The study involved straight line sprints but also consisted of tests to measure passing accuracy, agility and power. A more specific study by Glaister et al (2008) focused on the effects of caffeine on multiple sprints, this involved 12 x 30 metre sprints with 35 second intervals. Relative to placebo, caffeine supplementation resulted in a 0.06-s (1.4%) reduction in fastest sprint time (95% likely range = 0.04-0.09 s), which corresponde d with a 1.2% increase in fatigue (95% likely range = 0.3-2.2%). The study found that caffeine has ergogenic properties with the potential to benefit performance in both single and multiple sprint sports, although the effect of recovery duration on caffeine-induced responses to multiple sprint work requires further investigation. In contrast, Paton et al (2001) had a similar study design but the observed effect of caffeine ingestion on mean sprint performance and fatigue over 10 sprints was negligible. The true effect on mean performance could be small at most, although the true effects on fatigue and on the performance of individuals could be somewhat larger. The aim of this study is to examine the effects of caffeine on mean sprint times (s), fastest sprint times (s), RPE and fatigue from 30m multiple sprints. By using female participants this develops a new area of research as previous research is focused solely on male or mixed participants. 2.3 Resulting Hypotheses After reviewing the literature, hypotheses were formulated for the purpose of this study. Hypothesis 1: H0 There will be no significant difference in fastest sprint times following the consumption of 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of caffeine as compared to the non caffeine condition. Ha There will be a significant difference in fastest sprint times following the consumption of 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of caffeine as compared to the non caffeine condition. Hypothesis 2: H0 There will be no significant difference in mean sprint times following the consumption of 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of caffeine as compared to the non caffeine condition. Ha There will be a significant difference in mean sprint times following the consumption of 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of caffeine as compared to the non caffeine condition. Hypothesis 3: H0 There will be no significant difference in rate of perceived exertion (RPE) following the consumption of 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of caffeine, compared to the non caffeine condition. Ha There will be a significant difference in rate of perceived exertion (RPE) following the consumption of 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of caffeine, compared to the non caffeine condition. Hypothesis 4: H0 There will be no significant difference in fatigue following the consumption of 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of caffeine compared to the non caffeine condition. Ha There will be a significant difference in fatigue following the consumption of 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of caffeine compared to the non caffeine condition. CHAPTER 3.0 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Subjects Twelve female subjects (20  ± 2 yr, 1.64  ± 0.05 m, 58.9  ± 3.9 kg) from the University of Gloucestershire volunteered to take part in this investigation which was conducted in the Sports Hall at the Oxstalls Campus.All subjects participated in a multiple sprint sport on a regular basis. They played one of tennis, badminton, squash, football, hockey, rugby and lacrosse for the university and at a moderate standard so therefore were considered to have a sound level of baseline fitness. Participants from these teams trained at least once a week and were also involved in a match once a week. Before proceeding with the test, all of the subjects were informed of the testing procedure and how the data was going to be used in this study. Participants were given a list, outlining suitable kit to wear for the tests. Questionnaires were handed out to the participants to find out how many hours a week they participated in sport and their daily caffeine consumption levels. Before commencing, the participants filled out a health questionnaire to enable participation and signed an informed consent form. The subjects were advised to maintain their normal diet over the duration of the last two experimental runs, and were advised not to drink or eat 1 hour before testing. It was also important not to consume any caffeine, alcohol or any other stimulant products from a list provided to them, at least 24 hours before each experimental test and not to perform any strenuous exercise 24 hours prior to testing. Any subjects not being able to comply with the guidelines were eliminated from t he test. 3.2 Experimental Procedures All the participants undertook 3 multiple sprint tests in total, 1 familiarization test to get use to the experiment and outline any problems and then the latter 2 will were the repeated measures experimental tests. These tests consisted of 12 x 30m straight sprints and were repeated at 30 second intervals. Light gates (Brower Timing Light Gate System) were set up at either end of the 30m track to record times. Regarding the last two trials they were conducted single blinded so that results could be compared between the two groups. All the trials were run at approximately the same time of day and spaced a couple of days apart. Personal information from each participant including age, height (SC126 wall mounted Stadiometer : Holtain Limited, Crymych, Dyfed), and body mass (Seca 888 electronic personal scale : seca gmbh and co Ltd, Medizinsche Waggen und Messsysteme), were collected at the familiarization test too, ready for the experimental tests. After the final test, participants w ere asked if they could identify the difference between the placebo and caffeine and to express their reasons for this. The testing was performed in a controlled environment, using an indoor sports hall with a hard solid ground with inbuilt shock pads under the surface. Data being collected was average speed (ms-1), RPE, fatigue and fastest and slowest sprint times (s). All equipment was calibrated prior to testing. 3.3 Pre-Test On the day of each experimental run, participants were administered either the placebo or caffeine 1 hour before the testing is due to start in order for the affect of caffeine to be absorbed into their system. The caffeine dosage administered was 5 mgˆâ„ ¢kg-1 of body mass; rounding to the nearest 50mg. 10 minutes before each multiple sprint test participants undertook a standardized warm up which lasted for approximately 5 minutes. It included a 400 metre jog at their own pace, a series of sprint drills incorporating high knees, heel flicks and walking lunges to replicate the test and some practice sprints. Five minutes before the test, participants performed some stretches and gave themselves some time to get ready physically and mentally. 3.4 Testing In order to prevent false triggering with the light gates, participants started 1 m behind the line. The gates were set up at the start line and 30m along on the finish line. After the sprint, the subjects stayed down the same end as they finished in order to maximise recovery time between sprints, this lasted for 30 seconds. The countdown for each sprint was performed manually and will last 5 seconds. Each participant was verbally encouraged by others in order for them to try and work at their maximal effort. 3.5 Data Collection and Statistical Analysis With regards to the reliability of multiple sprints testing, it has previously been established by Glaister et al (2007) that high degrees of test-retest reliability can be obtained in many multiple sprint running indices without the need for prior familiarization. However, for this experiment, the familiarization test helped the researcher get use to the testing procedures to allow smother running on the experimental runs. Average speed (ms-1) for each participant was calculated using the timing gates, along with this, fastest and slowest sprint times were recorded too. Each participant was asked their rating of perceived exertion (RPE) after every sprint using Borgs (1982) 6-20 scale. The last component being measured was the effects of caffeine on fatigue from the multiple sprints, by using the percentage decrement calculation as used by Glaister et al (2004): Fatigue = (100 x (total sprint time/ideal sprint time)) 100 The total sprint time is the sum of all the sprints by the participant, divided by the ideal time, which is the time of the fastest sprint multiplied by how many sprints that were performed. Multiply the answer by 100 and then subtract 100 and you get the fatigue index of the individual. Data will be analysed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) for Windows. This way comparison between the two data sets can be made. The test used was a repeated measures dependant t-test, with a 95% confidence level. This is used when there is only one sample that has been tested twice (repeated measures). If the calculated statistical significance (95% confidence level), then the null hypothesis (H0) which states that the two groups do not differ is rejected in favour of the hypothesis, which states that the groups do differ and that there is an effect. 3.6 Facilities and Equipment Gaining access to facilities and equipment will need to be addressed in advance so that equipment isnt already booked out and that the facility is booked early enough so that it gives enough time to analyse results and write up the final proposal before the submission deadline. As the test was undertaken in the University Sports hall it was easier to book out than that of a public hall. The hall was booked out through phoning the university sports office and organising a time suitable for both needs. For the purpose of the study a wall mounted stadiometer, stopwatch, scales, placebo, light gates, a computer with a statistical analysis program and caffeine tablets were acquired. 3.7 Budget All costs were identified before the study was undertaken. None of the participants were paid for their participation. The hall was booked out for three 1 hour slots equating to  £60 ( £20 per hour), due to the affiliation with the University the hall was free of charge but if it was to be booked by a member of the public, these costs would need to be included. The cost of the caffeine was  £10 for ninety 200mg tablets, and the placebo pills cost  £3 per 50. 3.8 Ethical Considerations The participants received a voluntary informed consent form, which outlined the procedure, how the data was collected and how the data was used and by who. The data will be kept private under the Data Protection Act 1998 and data cant be linked to an individual participant. All participants were above the age of 18 so that they can give their own consent, also they were participating voluntarily. A health questionnaire was administered to find out any potential health risks, along with a list stating the possible effects of caffeine. Once all this information was given, participants were given the chance to refrain from participating. Participants were told that placebo was given instead of caffeine to half the population and not to the other half. There is a sense of deception due to the participants not knowing if they are taking the caffeine or the placebo, but there is no medical risk and if told it can affect the results of the study. 3.9 Temporal Plan WEEKS Objective 1 2 3